The mechanics of writing are, fittingly enough, the nuts and bolts of writing. While these elements of writing are often overlooked, they provide the foundation of a well-written manuscript. Failure to use proper mechanics will create confusion for the reader; furthermore, what you have written will immediately appear to have been poorly written.
Spelling
Major Spelling Rules
I before E, except after C.
For the most part, this does work:
I before E: friend, believe, relieve, diet
E before I: receive, receipt, conceive, ceiling
However, there are always exceptions to the rule:
When EI is used as “ay”: neighbor, weigh, eight, veins
Any word that has the prefix “re-” followed by an “I” word: reignite, reissue, reinstall
And the rest that just want to be difficult: seize, their, seeing, either, weird, forfeit
Drop the silent E at the end of a word before adding the suffix.
When adding a suffix that begins with a vowel (-ing, -ance, -ish), drop the final silent E.
Dive + ing = diving
Guide + ance = guidance
Prude + ish = prudish
When adding a suffix that begins with a consonant (-ly, -ment, -ness), keep the final silent E.
Entire + ly = entirely
Move + ment = movement
Like + ness = likeness
Exceptions include argument, truly, judgment, noticeable, changeable.
Change the final Y to I before adding the suffix.
In most circumstances, this is true:
Ready + ly = readily
Defy + ed = defied
Try + es = tries
Unless the suffix begins with I. If this is the case, keep the Y:
Try + ing = trying
Rely + ing = relying
Another exception is to keep the Y if it is preceded by a vowel:
Monkey + s = monkeys
Play + ed = played
Double the final consonant before adding the suffix.
Add S or ES to form the plural form of a noun.
Add ES when it is a singular noun ending in S, SH, CH, or X: messes, mashes, catches, suffixes
Add S to most other nouns: fits, chairs, cakes, books
If a word ends in O, add an S if the O is preceded by a vowel (radios) or add ES if the O is preceded by a consonant (heroes).
Capitalization
Proper Nouns
Proper nouns are names of a specific noun. All other nouns are common nouns. Proper nouns are capitalized.
Lake Superior (names a specific lake)
the nice lake (uses the noun “lake” in a general way which does not name one specific lake)
Other examples:
Uncle John/my uncle John
American Sentinel University/the university
English/language
Titles
Capitalize a person’s title if it is used as part of their name. Do not capitalize if using the title as a stand-alone.
Professor John M. Jones; Dr. Williams; Janet Johnson, DDS
the professor; doctor; my dentist, Janet Johnson
Academic Degrees
When generally referencing a degree (bachelor’s, master’s, doctorate) do not capitalize. If stating the full name of the degree (Master of Science in Nursing), capitalize. Further, use an apostrophe with the general reference (bachelor’s degree), but not in full name of degree (Bachelor of Science).
First Words
After a period
First word after a period should be capitalized:
My dog ate my homework. I know this is a bad excuse.
After a quotation mark
First word of a quoted sentence should be capitalized, unless the second quotation is completing a previous quotation:
Johnson (2014) argued, “There are many ways to conduct this.”
“There are many ways,” Johnson (2014) argued, “to conduct this.”
After a colon
First word of a complete sentence which follows a colon:
Consider this: No man has been able to complete this feat since the event began.
Note: If a proper name begins with a lowercase letter (e.g. del Toro), capitalize the first letter if it begins a sentence.
Del Toro (2014) argued, “No man has been able to complete this feat.”
Abbreviations
Abbreviations are used to shorten specific words, and are intended to be used to reduce the amount of print on a page. If the abbreviation is known to the reader, it makes reading a bit easier to this reader. However, one must be conscientious in balancing the use of abbreviations, as overuse or confusing use of this tool will have an adverse effect on the reader.
Use an abbreviation to replace a frequently used term.
According to APA Style, it is acceptable to use an abbreviation in place of a term you will be using frequently within a single paper. This holds true even if the term is not a common abbreviation outside of your specific paper.
When doing so, use the full term in its first occurrence, immediately followed by the abbreviation that will be replacing it throughout the remainder of the paper. Enclose this abbreviation within parentheses.
The American Nursing Association (ANA) was founded…
When diagnosing chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)…
Use an abbreviation for titles immediately before or after a proper name.
When addressing a person by their title, it is acceptable to include this title as an abbreviation, as long as it is connected to the specific proper noun.
Dr. Jane Johnson
John Johnson, MD
Prof. Joe Jones
Jill Jones, PhD
John Johnson Jr.
Do not abbreviate a title if it is not immediately connected to the proper noun.
My professor will be here soon.
She is my doctor, Jane Johnson. (Notice that “doctor” is not a part of the proper noun’s title. In this example, “Jane Johnson” is modifying the noun “doctor.” If “doctor” were used as a title, the meaning of the sentence would change significantly: She is my Dr. Jane Johnson.)
Use an abbreviation for Latin terms.
According to APA Style, Latin terms are accepted, with the exception that they are used within parentheses.
There are many negative effects that could result (e.g. dehydration).
Latin abbreviations include:
e.g. = for example,
i.e. = that is,
etc. = and so forth
viz. = namely,
vs. = versus,
cf. = compare
The only exception would be “et al.” (and others), which can be used both inside and outside of parentheses, as required.
Contractions
Contractions are not typically used within an APA Style manuscript, as they are regarded as informal language.
However, when using contractions outside of APA Style, consider the following:
– Contractions are represented by an apostrophe.
– This apostrophe signals to the reader that at least one letter has been omitted from the word.
Do not = don’t
Cannot = can’t
I will = I’ll
You have = you’ve
He is = he’s
Note: Nonstandard contractions, such as “ain’t” or “ya’ll” tend not to be used in formal or professional writing.
Numbers
There are many situations in which numbers are referred to by a writer. In some situations, you will spell out the number, while others will require you to use the numeral. Generally speaking, words of 10 or higher are represented in word form, while 1-9 are represented by numerals. APA Style has further rules for specific formatting.
When to use numerals:
Numbers that are 10 or above.
10 books; 1.1 million
Numbers that are part of a unit of measurement.
10-mm; 2 inches; 7/8 oz., 200 lbs.
Numbers that are part of a mathematical equation.
Divide into multiples of 5; 2nd percentile; 75%
Numbers that refer to a specific time, date, age, points scale, and sum of money.
2:45 PM, 8/26/83, 12-year-old, 87 out of 100, $1,000
Numbers that refer to a specific part of a series.
Grade 5, example 3.1
When to use words:
When a number begins a sentence, is in a title, or in a heading.
Ten participants in the study were men and 10 were women.
When representing common fractions.
One-half the population; a quarter-pound
Proper nouns that include a number in its name.
Seven Wonders of the World
Combining numerals and words:
If you have a series of two or more numbers expressed in a sentence, use both numeral and word representations to provide better clarity.
Ten 12-year-olds celebrated arrived for the birthday party.
7 five-sided figures
Italics and Underlines
Italics (slanting the font such as this) and underlines typically represent the same meaning in writing language. Underlining is often used in handwritten documents, as italicizing handwriting is difficult. When using a computer for word processing, writings will most often use italics.
When to use italics:
Titles of works, as determined by APA Style.
Journal of Higher Education
An analysis of gaining independent wealth
Romeo and Juliet
Foreign words.
The adage carpe diem is a popular one among Western culture.
Names of ships, aircraft, trains, and spacecraft.
Apollo 13; Titanic; Air Force One
Words, letters, and numbers mentioned as themselves.
He had asked us why, but why was not the correct question to ask.
The letter F is difficult to write in cursive.
The number 9 upside down resembles a 6.
Note: These are general rules to follow within the body of a manuscript. Follow APA Style rules for italicization for reference page formatting.
Hyphenation
When to use a hyphen can be tricky to determine. When dealing with compound words, the best option is to refer to a dictionary (or online search) to determine if the norm is to hyphenate, combine for a single word, or keep two separate words.
health-care; healthcare; health care
When to use a hyphen:
Two or more words that precede a noun and function as an adjective.
a do-or-die situation
the food-speckled dining room wall
56-year-old man
12th-grade classroom
Fractions (that are not common) and numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine.
two-fifths of the population
Forty-second president
To avoid confusion or ambiguity.
re-creation versus recreation (different meanings between words)
re-enroll versus reenroll (awkwardness from double letters created by prefix)
Using the prefix self-.
Self-made
Self-cited
Compounds with a base word that is capitalized, a number, or an abbreviation.
pro-Johnson
post-2000
anti-WMD
Two or more modifiers use the same root word.
both pre- and post-1800 literature is required
single-, double-, and multi-engine aircraft